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Early function showed that a phosphatidylinositol kinase activity copurified with various viraloncoproteins expressed in mammalian cellsandthat cellular transformation mediated by such oncoproteins was to some extent dependent onthe association with this lipid kinase activity. This oncoproteinassociatedlipid kinase could ALK Inhibitors phosphorylate phosphatidylinositol on the 3OH position of theinositol ring, hereby generating PI3P, a novel variety of phosphoinositide. This discovering was followed by the discovery of PIP3trisphosphate; PIP3in GPCRstimulated neutrophilsand upon acute stimulation with tyrosine kinase agonists. It was not known at the time that agoniststimulatedPI3K is really a heterodimer made up of a p110 catalytic subunit and a regulatory subunit,namely p85 in the case of class IA PI3Ks and p101 in the case with the class IB p110γ.
Earlystudies quite a lot focused on a tyrosinephosphorylated 85 kD protein identified in PDGFstimulatedor polyoma middle Ttransformed cells which connected with PI3K activity. This protein turned out to be the p85regulatory subunit ALK Inhibitors of PI3K, and its cDNA was cloned by numerous groups. A number of teams also purified the PI3K enzymeactivity biochemically from various tissues. Protein microsequencing allowed thedesign of oligonucleotide probes to isolate the very first cDNA of a PI3K catalytic subunit, namelyp110. This function revealed that the sequence of p110 was closelyhomologous to that with the product of vps34, a S. cerevisiae gene involved in endosomal sortingof proteins towards the vacuole, the yeast equivalent with the mammalian lysosome.
Followup function revealed that mapk inhibitor vps34 indeed had PI3K activity, but having a substratespecificity that was various from p110, in that it may only phosphorylate PIbut not PIP2bisphosphate.A concerted effort of several laboratories, utilizing various methods, such as biochemicalpurification and degenerate PCR approaches, revealed the existence of a number of PI3K isoformsin mammals, but additionally in D. melanogaster, C. elegans, Dictyosteliumand other species, even in plants. These findings led towards the realisation that PI3Ks are anevolutionarily conserved family of enzymes which on the basis of structural and biochemicalcharacteristics was divided into 3 classes.Mammals have eight isoforms of PI3K. A single representative of every ofthe three PI3K classes is present in C. elegans and D. melanogaster. In yeast, only a class IIIPI3K is identified.
The analysis of PI3K functions in the cell was tremendously aided by two small molecule inhibitors,wortmannin and LY294002. Wortmannin was identified as a PI3K inhibitor in 1993, and in 1994, Lillylaboratories published the LY294002 inhibitor. Interestingly, all thesepapers NSCLC nearly exclusively focused on probing the immunological aspects of PI3K functionusing these compounds. LY294002 and wortmannin have undoubtedly been instrumental inproviding initial insights into the cell biology of PI3Ks but might also have generated some falseexpectations due to lack of specificity.Concurrent using the isolation with the genes for the various PI3Ks was the realisation that the3phosphoinositides could selectively bind to defined target modules in proteins, therebyaltering the localisation of such proteins and their conformation and activity.
Among numerousprotein domains that were defined during this time was the PHdomain,a module that occurs in several proteins. A majordiscovery was that some PH domains could bind phosphoinositides. Thecharacterisation of other 3phosphoinositide binding domains soon followed, such as theFYVEdomainand mapk inhibitor PXdomainwhich both bind PI3P.1 with the proteins that was reportedto have a PHdomain was the SerThr kinase Akt, that is the mammalian cellular homologue ALK Inhibitors of theretroviral transforming gene vAkt. Akt was also independently clonedas a protein kinase related to PKA and PKC, hence its alternative names PKBand Rac. Akt was subsequentlyconfirmed as a PI3K target in cells stimulated with tyrosine kinase agonists, such as PDGFand insulin, and by means of its PH domain shownto bind PIP3 and PIP2 with high specificity and affinity.
An intact PH domain in Akt is essential for its function.The regulation of Akt itself turned out to be rather complex. The PH domain recruits Akt toPIP3 and PIP2 as well as the plasma membrane, where it becomes a substrate for the membraneboundPDK1 kinase, which phosphorylates Akt on Thr308. Quite early on, it was documented that Akt mapk inhibitor isalso phosphorylated on Ser473, however it took more than a decade to identifythe kinase that performs this phosphorylation. It turned out to be mTOR complexed with theRictor protein, also referred to as mTORC2.A next step was to identify downstream substrates of Akt protein kinase activity. Akt was foundto manage other protein kinases either directly, including GSKor indirectly,including p70 S6 kinase. 1 with the Akt substrates turned out to bethe proapoptotic protein Bad, that is inhibited in its apoptotic function uponphosphorylation by Akt. Offered that wortmannin andLY294002 had previously been shown to be able to induce